
结论:国际NGO与全球变革
鉴于国际NGO的爆炸性增长和它们对全球其他行动者强有力的影响,一个不断出现的问题是,它们到底有多重要?它们是否改变了国家、政府间国际组织和跨国公司的行为?它们是否真的有助于减缓全球变暖、改善贫困国家的农业、提升妇女权力、杜绝腐败、减缓艾滋病的蔓延?等等。
国际NGO确实重要,有时非常重要,这是对具体问题、具体组织进行大量研究后清楚得到的结论,诸多研究上文已提及。然而,有关国际NGO有效性的系统性证据不足,因为大部分证据是基于案例研究和对轶事的编辑。有关发展领域的评估研究,是国际NGO所有活动领域中研究最充分的,但也没有说服力。尽管发展领域国际NGO作为官方发展援助项目的管理者和渠道变得更加重要,但明显地,它们从经济或社会角度帮助欠发达国家是不成功的(Riddell et al., 1997)。
然而,如上文所述,国际NGO有效性问题却有误导性。在诸多全球领域,有关国际NGO注定有效,因为没有其他重要行动者参与。在其他领域,如全球标准化领域(Loya & Boli, 1999),国际NGO起着主导作用,其他行为主体或者被纳入国际NGO体系,或者一直被边缘化。在另一些领域中,国际NGO与其他全球行为主体密切合作,单一行为主体的有效性无法分割开来讨论。因此,国际NGO的效力被大大低估是合理的,很大程度上也是因为有众多国际NGO领域仍未被研究。在理论层面,考虑国际NGO在构建和传播世界文化方面的效力,是非常有益的(Boli & Thomas, 1997)。国际NGO数量远远多于政府间国际组织的数量,且比任何国家和跨国公司都更加关注全球问题、全球实践和全球政策,它们构成当今世界文化的骨干。
国际NGO为全球活动制定操作规则,正如国际商会为国际贸易中合理提单设置要求(Berman, 1988)。国际NGO定义全球概念体系,正如国际天文学联合会正式界定行星和冷矮星之间的差异。它们协助产出和传播全球性的知识体系,正如国际辐射防护协会出版该领域顶尖研究者的论文集。国际NGO也传达、辩论和塑造在全世界范围(虽然有争议)适用的道德与规范性原则(Nadelmann, 1990),如濒危动物要大力保护、妇女有权控制自己的身体、跨国公司的社会责任要远远超出其对利润和效率的关注。这些一般的规则、定义、知识主体和道德标准形成了世界文化语境,国家、跨国公司、个人和国际NGO本身都嵌入其中,因此,其他行动主体的身份、目标、行动以及价值观都受到影响(Meyer et al., 1997)。
在国际社会中,这些多样化的进程是社会变迁的主要来源,其中包括高度差异化的国际NGO群体有助于产生并不断重建高度差异化、碎片化的世界文化苍穹。这个世界,如果没有国际NGO,很多国家很可能不会承担它们近几十年新承担的(关于妇女的角色和地位、安全标准、同性恋者权利、污染控制、支持科学研究以及更多其他)责任。如果没有国际NGO,跨国公司很难将如此多的资源投入环境项目,在实际雇人时将机会均等作为一条标准,或者每当一个新的组织管理技术(走动式管理、全面质量管理、业务流程重组等)出现时就顺应形势及时采纳。如果没有国际NGO,世界经济将会更加分裂更加不稳定,技术将变得更加不规范,心理和社会问题的概念将会更加多样化,同时,侵犯人权也会更加频繁。如果没有国际NGO,许多形式的分歧和冲突也不会太明显,因为国际NGO往往聚集在世界文化竞争轴心的周围。
本文回顾了国际NGO作为全球非营利部门的重要部分。或许可以这样对国际NGO有效性做最好的总结:国际NGO使得整个世界更加全球化。作为全球化的重要驱动力量,国际NGO推动其他各类行为主体(国家、政府间国际组织、跨国公司、个人和各种集体)进入国际社会,让其有更多参与,并意识到日常生活的全球维度。国际NGO自19世纪形成期以来一直是这样,21世纪很有可能还是这样。
参考文献
Anheier, H., et al.(eds.)(2001), Global Civil Society, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Berkovitch, N.(1999), From Motherhood to Citizenship: Women's Rights and International Organizations, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Berman, H. J.(1988),“The Law of International Commercial Transactions”, Emory Journal of International Dispute Resolution, 2, pp.235-310.
Boli, J.(1999),“World Authority Structures and Legitimations”, in John Boli and George M. Thomas(eds.), Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875, Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, pp.249-266.
Boli, J., et al.(1999),“National Participation in World-Polity Organization”, in John Boli and George M. Thomas(eds.), Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875, Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, pp.50-77.
Boli, J. and Thomas, G. M.(1997),“World Culture inthe World Polity: A Century of International Non-Governmental Organization”, American Sociological Review, 62, pp.171-190.
——(eds.)(1999), Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875, Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press.
Boulding, E.(1990),“Building a Global Civic Culture”, Development, 2, pp.37-40.
——(1991),“The Old and New Transnationalism: An Evolutionary Perspective”, Human Relations, 44, pp.789-805.
Castermans, A. G., et al.(eds.)(1991), The Role of Non-Governmental Organizationsin the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, Leiden: Stichtung NJCM-Boekerij.
Charnovitz, S.(1997),“Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance”, Michigan Journal of International Law, 18, pp.183-286.
Cowhey, P. F.(1990),“The International Telecommunications Regime: The Political Roots of Regimes for High Technology”, International Organization, 44, pp.169-199.
Cutler, A. C., et al.(eds.)(1999), Private Authority in International Affairs, Albany: State University of New York Press.
Diehl, P. F.(ed.)(1996), The Politics of Global Governance: International Organizations in an Interdependent World, Boulder, Colo: Lynne Rienner.
Edwards, M.(2000a),“Time to Put the NGO House in Order”, Financial Times, 6 June.
Edwards, M.(2000b), NGO Rights and Responsibilities: A New Dealfor Global Governance, London: Foreign Policy Centre.
Edwards, M. and Gaventa, J.(eds.)(2001), Global Citizen Action: Perspectives and Challenges, Boulder: LynneRienner.
Esteva, G. & Prakash, M. S.(1998), Grassroots Post-Modernism: Remaking the Soil of Cultures, London: Zed Books.
Falk, R.(1993),“The Infancy of Global Civil Society”, in Geir Lundestad and Odd Arne Westad(eds.), Beyond the Cold War: New Dimensions in International Relations, Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, pp.219-234.
Falk, R.(1994),“The Making of Global Citizenship”, in Bart van Steenbergen(ed.), The Condition of Citizenship, London: Sage Publications, pp.127-140.
Feld, W.(1971),“Non-Governmental Entities and the International System: A Preliminary Quantitative Overview”, Orbis, 15, pp.879-922.
Finnemore, M.(1999),“Rules of War and Wars of Rules: The International Red Cross and the Restraint of State Violence”, in John Boli and George M. Thomas(eds.), Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875, Stanford, Calif:Stanford University Press, pp.149-165.
Florini, A. M.(ed.)(2000), The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society, Tokyo: Japan Center for International Exchange, Washington D. C. : Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
Fox, J. A. & Brown, L. D.(eds.)(1998), The Strugglefor Accountability: The World Bank, NGOs, and Grassroots Movements, Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
Frank, D. J., et al.(1997),“The Structuring of a World Environmental Regime, 1870-1990”, International Organization, 51, pp.623-651.
Frank, et al.(2000),“The Nation-State and the Natural Environment over the Twentieth Century”, American Sociological Review, 65, pp.96-116.
George, Susan(2001),“Democracy at the Barricades”, Le mondediplomatique, August.
Guidry, J. A., et al.(eds.)(2001), Globalizations and Social Movements: Culture, Power, and the Transnational Public Sphere, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Haas, P. M.(1992),“Introduction: Epistemic Communitiesand International Policy Coordination”, International Organization, 46, pp.1-35.
Hasenclever, A., et al.(1997), Theories of International Regimes, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Haufler, V.(2000),“Private Sector International Regimes”, Chap 7, in Richard A. Higgott, Geoffrey R. D. Underhill, and Andreas Bieler(eds.), Non-State Actors and Authority in the Global System, London: Routledge.
Higgott, R. A. et al.,(eds.)(2000), Non-State Actors and Authority in the Global System, London: Routledge.
Hulme, D. & Edwards, M.(1997), NGOs, States and Donors: Too Close for Comfort? Houndmills, U. K. : Macmillan.
Islam, S.(2001),“E. U. Ministers Warn Protestors:‘We Are Democratically Elected'”, Deutsche Presse-Agentur, 16 July.
Jepperson, R. L.(2002),“Political Modernities: Disentangling Two Underlying Dimensions of Institutional Differentiation”, Sociological Theory, 20, pp.61-85.
Kaldor, M.(1999),“The Ideas of 1989: The Origins of the Concept of Global Civil Society”, Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems, 9, pp.475-488.
Keane, J.(2001),“Global Civil Society”, Chap.2, in Helmut Anheier, Marlies Glasius and Mary Kaldor(eds.), Global Civil Society 2001, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Keck, M. E. & Sikkink, K.(1998), Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics, Ithaca, N. Y. : Cornell University Press.
Korten, D. C.(2001), When Corporations Rule the World, 2nd ed, Bloomfield, Conn:Kumarian Press.
Krasner, S. D.(1991),“Global Communications and National Power: Life on the Pareto Frontier”, World Politics, 43, pp.336-366.
Lipschutz, R. D. & Judith, M.(1996), Global Civil Society and Global Environmental Governance: The Politicsof Nature from Place to Planet, Albany: State University of New York Press.
Lipschutz, R. D.(1992),“Reconstructing World Politics: The Emergence of Global Civil Society”, Millennium: Journalof International Studies, 21, pp.389-420.
Loya, T. A. &Boli, J.(1999),“Standardization in the World Polity: Technical Ration-alization over Power”, pp.169-197, in John Boliand George M. Thomas(eds.), Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875, Stanford, Calif:Stanford University Press.
Mathews, J. T.(1997),“Power Shift”, Foreign Affairs, 76, pp.50-66.
Meyer, J. W., et al.(1997),“The Rise of an Environmental Sector in World Society”, International Organization, 51, pp.623-651.
Meyer, J. W., et al.(1997),“World Society and the Nation-State”, American Journal of Sociology, 103, pp.144-181.
Nadelmann, E. A.(1990),“Global Prohibition Regimes: The Evolution of Norms in International Society”, International Organization, 44, pp.479-526.
Naughton, J.(2001),“Contested Space: The Internet and Global Civil Society”, Chap.6, in Helmut Anheier, Marlies Glasius and Mary Kaldor(eds.), Global Civil Society 2001, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Otto, D.(1996),“Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System: The Emerging Role of International Civil Society”, Human Rights Quarterly, 18, pp.107-141.
O'Brien, R., et al.(2000), Contesting Global Governance: Multilateral Economic Institutions and Global Social Movements, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pasha, M. K. &Blaney, D.(1998),“Elusive Paradise: The Promise and Peril of Global Civil Society”, Alternatives, 23, pp.417-450.
Pianta, M.(2001),“Parallel Summits of Global Civil Society”, Chap.7, in Helmut Anheier, Marlies Glasius and Mary Kaldor(eds.), Global Civil Society 2001, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Porter, T.(2002), Technology, Governance and Political Conflict in International Industries, London: Routledge.
Riddell, R. C., et al.(1997), Searching for Impactand Methods: NGO Evaluation Synthesis Study, A Report Produced for the OECD/DAC Expert Group on Evaluation.
Rieff, D.(1999),“The False Dawn of Civil Society”, Nation, 268,(7 February, pp.11-16.
Rosenau, J. N.(1997), Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier: Exploring Governance in a Turbulent World, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Salamon, L. M., et al.(eds.)(1999), Global Civil Society: Dimensions of the Nonprofit Sector, Baltimore: Center for Civil Society Studies, Johns Hopkins University.
Schofer, E.(1999),“Science Associations in the International Sphere, 1875-1990:The Rationalization of Science and the Scientization of Society”, in John Boli and George M. Thomas(eds.), Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875, Stanford, Calif. : Stanford University Press, pp.249-266.
Scholte, J. A. & Schnabel, A.(eds.)(2002), Civil Societyand Global Finance, London: Routledge.
Smith, J., et al.(1994),“Transnational Social Movement Organisations in the GlobalPolitical Arena”, Voluntas, 5, pp.121-154.
Smith, J., et al.(eds.)(1997), Transnational Social Movements and World Politics:Solidaritybeyond the State, Syracuse, N. Y. : Syracuse University Press.
Sochor, E.(1991), The Politics of International Aviation, London: Macmillan.
Speeckaert, G. P.(1957),“The 1978 International Organizations Founded since the Congress of Vienna”, Documents for the Study of International Nongovernment Relations, No.7, Brussels: Union of International Associations.
Spiro, P. J.(1995),“New Global Communities: Nongovernmental Organizations in International Decision-Making”, Washington Quarterly, 18, pp.45-56.
Starr, A.(2000), Naming the Enemy: Anti-Corporate Movements Confront Globalization, London: Zed Books.
Tarrow, S.(2000),“La Contestation Transnationale”, Cultureset Conflits, 38-39, pp.187-223.
Van Steenbergen, B.(1994),“Towards a Global EcologicalCitizen”, in Bart van Steen-bergen(ed.), The Condition of Citizenship, London: Sage Publications, pp.141-152.
Wapner, P.(1996), Environmental Activism and World Civicl Politics, Albany: State University of New York Press.
Waterman, P.(1998), Globalisation, Social Movements and the New Internationalisms, London: Cassell/Mansell.
Weiss, T. G. & Gordenker, L.(eds.)(1996), NGOs, the UN, and Global Governance, Boulder, Colo: Lynne Rienner.
Willetts, P.(ed.)(1996),“The Conscience of the World”, The Influence of Non-Governmental Organizations in the UN System, Washington, D. C. : Brookings Institution Press.
Wuthnow, R.(ed.)(1991), Between States and Markets: The Voluntary Sector in Comparative Perspective, Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press.
Young, O.(ed.)(1997), Global Governance, Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.